Table 1 Engineered EVs as nanovaccine platforms for oncological immunotherapy

DC-Derived EVs

General Cancer

Antigen delivery, immune adjuvant

Deliver antigens to dendritic cells (DCs), enhance antigen presentation, stimulate T cell activation, and promote immune responses

[123]

Tumor-Derived Exosomes (TEX)

General Cancer

Tumor antigen delivery

Carry tumor-associated antigens (TAAs), transfer them to DCs, activate immune responses. However, may also possess immunosuppressive properties that promote tumor evasion

[124]

Engineered Tumor-Derived EVs

General Cancer

Enhanced antigen presentation

Modification with fusogenic peptides (e.g., GALA) for improved lysosomal escape, enhancing antigen presentation via MHC class I on DCs

[126]

Tumor-Derived Exosomes

Breast Cancer

Immune activation and immune response promotion

Engineered with ICD inducers like human neutrophil elastase and hiltonol to boost dendritic cell (DC) activity and promote CD8⁺ T cell responses

[127]

Gamma-ray-Irradiated EVs

Melanoma

Enhanced antigenicity and T cell activation

γ-ray-irradiated exosomes increase antigenicity, enhancing anticancer T-lymphocyte immunity when incorporated into DC immunotherapy vaccines

[128]

M1-Macrophage-Derived EVs

General Cancer

Tumor microenvironment remodeling

M1-polarized macrophage-derived exosomes (M1OVA-Exos) inhibit Wnt signaling to reprogram tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) into M1 phenotype, promoting immune responses

[129]

EVs Mimicking DCs

General Cancer

Immune modulation, photodynamic therapy (PDT)

EV-mimicking AIE nanoparticles combine immune-modulating proteins and photosensitizers for enhanced immune responses and eradication of tumors and metastases

[134]

PD-L1-/- Exosome Hybrid EVs

Metastatic Melanoma

Immune checkpoint modulation

GENPs disrupt PD-L1 secretion, activate T cells, and enhance systemic immune responses, in combination with anti-PD-L1 therapy for improved therapeutic outcomes

[130]

Virus-Mimicking Nanovaccine

General Cancer

Tumor immunotherapy through STING pathway activation

cGAMP^@vEVs activate the STING pathway, promoting cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) infiltration, inhibiting tumor growth and metastasis

[133]

DC-Tumor Hybrid EVs

Glioblastoma, Brain Cancer

Tumor-specific immunity and blood–brain barrier crossing

STING agonist-loaded chimeric exosomes (DT-Exo-STING) enhance T-cell immunity, transform the immunosuppressive glioblastoma microenvironment, and boost immune checkpoint blockade efficacy

[131]

Hybrid Nanovaccine (Tumor-Derived EVs + DCs)

Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma (HNSCC)

Antigen delivery and T cell activation

Hy-M-Exo (hybrid nanovaccine) combines tumor-derived exosomes with DC membrane vesicles to enhance lymph node targeting and T-cell responses, demonstrating significant therapeutic potential

[132]